[Samuel G. Goodrich, The Jerking Exercise from Recollections of a Lifetime, 1856, engraving—Public domain, University of Pittsburgh Library]在被任命为主教后近六年,利古里创立了至圣救主会。这群牧师也被称为赎世主会,他们的职责是服务、劳作和向城市和农村的穷人传教。赎世主会还感到自己有责任打击天主教圈子里的詹森主义。利古里认为詹森主义要求信徒遵守极端的道德严苛主义,与之相反,他强调恩典,认为“应该把忏悔者视为需要拯救的灵魂,而不是需要惩罚的罪犯。”
One reason we know as much as we do about Benedict is that his faithful life caught the attention of Gregory. Gregory is known for a number of important commentaries, sermons, and letters, but also for the Dialogues, four books on holy men of the sixth century and the various miracles, signs, and healings they had performed. In the Second Book of Dialogues, Gregory praises Benedict as a hero and portrays him predominately as a miracle worker.
These miracle stories focus not only on Benedict’s personal piety, or even on his skills as a practical organizer and spiritual father of his community as seen in the Rule. Rather, Gregory told of miracles of Benedict that helped and healed those in his monastic and wider community. Gregory focused also on Benedict’s relief of poverty and hardship, with tales of how he brought water from a rock, revived the sick, paid the debts of the poor, and filled an empty barrel with oil. While most monks could not expect to perform such miracles, all could expect to be guided by Benedict’s example in their daily civic engagement.
Refocusing on the poor
Gregory’s own life demonstrated the same tension and rhythm between monastic life and the wider community. Gregory’s family background was similar to Benedict’s. He was born Gregorius Anicius to a wealthy Roman noble family in a villa on the Caelian Hill, one of the famous seven hills of Rome, and raised in a period of distress—during the Plague of Justinian in the mid-540s, a pandemic that killed about a fifth of the city’s population. Famine and political unrest were also common.
Gregory’s father, Gordianus, a prominent political and church administrator, influenced his son’s future trajectory. (Gordianus may have been the great-grandson of Pope Felix III, and Gregory’s mother, Silvia, was well-born.) Gregory became an urban prefect of Rome at the age of 30, showing early a talent for administration that would serve him well throughout his life.
After his father’s death, around 574 Gregory transformed his family villa into an urban-based monastery called Saint Andrew’s, balancing his desire for contemplation with his public duty to serve others. In 579 Pope Pelagius II ordained Gregory a deacon and sent him to Constantinople as ambassador to the imperial court. Pelagius tasked Gregory to get help from the emperor so that Rome could fend off the attacking Lombards, but Gregory was not successful. After returning to Rome, Gregory was elected pope by acclamation in 590 after Pelagius II died of yet another plague.
As pope, Gregory faced a number of challenges, including continuing to defend Rome against outside aggression. In the absence of secular leadership that encouraged peace, a major feat of Gregory’s papacy was the way he calmed the political instability and stabilized the city’s economy.
接下来为了响应媒体的追问,AiG于2010年4月27日在其网站发出一个简短的报告,并于2010年4月29日发出一则简短的评论,亦于2010年5月1日在每周新闻记要「News to Note」栏目内对这则新闻作较详细的专题分析,其中只在新闻记要内简略地提到木样本的放射性碳测年法,但没有作详细交代(我当时身处大峡谷,与世隔绝!)。然而AiG的新闻记要确实简略地解释,若探索队所持木样本真是大洪水前制成方舟的木材,这些放射性碳测年结果是会带来难题的。
1750年以前,丹麦最重要的一位地质学思想家是同为解剖学家的斯滕森(Neils Steensen, 1638-1686)。他确立了叠复原理(principle of superposition),即沉积岩层是以一种连续的、水平的形式沉积而成,所以较低地层的形成先于其上的地层。在他的著作《先驱》(Forerunner,1669)里,他表达了这样的观点:地球的年龄约有6000年,含有化石的岩层是在挪亚洪水中沉积形成的。在接下来的一百年里,多位作者在著作中都重申了这个观点,其中有英国地质学家伍德沃德(John Woodward,1665-1722)和德国地质学家莱曼(Johann Lehmann,1719-1767)。
18世纪后期,法国和意大利的一些地质学家厌弃圣经对挪亚洪水的记载,他们认为岩层是经过漫长的自然过程形成的。还有几个颇有影响力的法国人也强化了数百万年的概念。备受尊敬的科学家布丰(Comte de Buffon,1707-1788)在他的著作《自然的分期》(Epochs of Nature,1779)中,想象地球曾像一个炙热的球体,经过约75000年冷却到现在的状态(他未出版的手稿说经过约300 0000年)。天文学家拉普拉斯(Pierre Laplace,1749-1827)在他的《宇宙系统说明》(Exposition of the System of the Universe)中提出了星云假说(nebular hypothesis)。该假说认为太阳系曾是一团旋转的热气云,经过漫长的时间逐渐冷却、凝聚,最后形成了多个行星。壳类动物专家拉马克(Jean Lamarck)在他的《动物学哲思》(Philosophy of Zoology)中也主张生物漫长进化的理论。
在苏格兰,詹姆斯•赫顿(James Hutton,1726-1797)提出一套不同的地球历史论。他大学学医,毕业后接管了家族的农场。不久他发现了自己的真正爱好:地球研究。1788年他发表了题为《地球论》(Theory of the Earth)的期刊论文,1795发表同名著作。他提出,大陆曾被缓慢侵蚀,沉入海洋。这些沉积物在地球内热的作用下逐渐硬化,后在震动中隆起,形成新的陆地。新的陆地又会被侵蚀,沉入海洋,硬化,再上升,如此循环往复。在他看来,地球的历史周而复始,以至无穷。
灾变论和均变论的辩论
Georges Cuvier
Georges Cuvier (1768–1832)
Georges Cuvier (1768–1832)
沃纳和赫顿都没有太注意化石的问题。然而,在19世纪早期,法国著名的比较解剖学家兼脊椎动物古生物学家乔治斯•居维叶(Georges Cuvier,1768-1832)提出了灾变地球史。他在《地表革命的探讨》(Discourse on the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe,1812)中清楚地阐释了这个理论。居维叶认为,在漫长、无尽的地球史中,很多地区性甚至全球范围的洪灾毁灭了生物,并把它们填埋在了沉积物中。其中只有一场灾难性洪水发生在人类被造之后。
灾变论遭遇重创是在1830至1833年间。此时,查尔斯•莱尔(Charles Lyell,1797-1875),一名律师,巴克兰(Buckland)以前的学生,发表了影响非凡的三卷著作《地质学原理》(Principles of Geology)。赫顿的观点在莱尔这里得到复兴,甚至扩充。莱尔在著作中提出了他认为应该主导地质学解释的原理。他的理论是彻底的均变论。他强调,我们应该单以现今观察到的地质变化的强度和量级来解释过去地质活动的岩石记录。换句话说,地质变化过程在地球史中一直是均一的。莱尔坚称从来没有发生过大洲或全球范围的洪灾。
19世纪早期,尽管均变论者和灾变论者仍在辩论,而地质学作为一门科学还处在萌芽期,还有一些基督徒仍然不暇思索地接受了数百万年的概念,并试图将这漫长的时间揉进《创世记》。1804年,年轻的长老会牧师托马斯•查默斯(Thomas Chalmers,1780-1847)开始教导基督徒应该接受数百万年的概念;1814年,他在对居维叶著作的评论中提出,这一段时间可以放于《创世记》1:1和1:2之间。当时,查默斯是一位极有影响力的传道领袖,结果间隔论变得十分流行。1823年,备受尊敬的英国神学家乔治•法伯尔(George Stanley Faber,1773-1854)开始宣扬一日一纪论,即创世中的“日”不是字面上的一天,而是象征久远年代。
Gap Theory
虽然忠于圣经的地质学家不懈努力,但各种年老地球论对《创世记》的解释还是盛行开来。直至1845年,所有《创世记》的注释书都遗弃了圣经纪年和全球洪水的史实。达尔文的《物种起源》出版时(1859),年轻地球论基本上已从教会中消失。从那时起,大多数基督徒领袖和学者都接受了数百万年的时间概念,并主张地球的年龄并不重要。不久,很多敬虔信徒也接受了进化论。篇幅有限,这里仅提几个例子。浸信会“布道王子”查尔斯•司布真(1834-1892)不加批判地接受了年老地球的地质论,尽管他从来没有解释如何将这漫长的年代融入圣经。在1855年的一次讲道中他说:
司可福(C. I. Scofield)把间隔论放在了《司可福串注圣经》创世记1:2的注释里,这本圣经为世界数以百万的基督徒使用。最近一位备受尊敬的旧约学者辩称:创世记1章表面看来,给我们的印象似乎是整个创造过程用了六天。如果这就是希伯来作者的原意……那么这似乎和现代的科学研究相抵触,因为科学研究显示地球是在几十亿年前被创造的。
T. Mortenson, The Great Turning Point: The Church’s Catastrophic Mistake on Geology—Before Darwin (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2004) 详细论述了这些人如何反驳正在逐渐兴起的年来地球论和妥协理论。
C.H. Spurgeon, “Election,” The New Park Street Pulpit 1 (1990): 318.
关于这一悲哀的叛教历程,更多历史资料参见 J. Pipa and D. Hall, eds., Did God Create in Six Days? (Whitehall, WV: Tolle Lege Press, 2005), p. 7–16.
G. Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction (Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1985), p. 187.
D. Ager, The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record (New York: Wiley, 1981), p. 46–47.
E. Mayr, “The Nature of the Darwinian Revolution,” Science 176 (1972): 988.
J. Hutton, “Theory of the Earth,” Trans. of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1788, quoted in A. Holmes,
Principles of Physical Geology (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1965), p. 43–44.
H. Cole, Popular Geology Subversive of Divine Revelation (London: Hatchard and Son, 1834), p. ix–x, 44–45 footnote.